Here is a quick timeline of some of the events that helped shape Roman Britain:
55 BC-Julius Caesar lands near Kent, meets furious resistance, and falls back across the Channel to Gaul.
54 BC-Julius Caesar returns with a much larger force, makes enemies and friends, wins several small engagements, declares himself a conqueror and sails south never to return.
51 BC-A third planned invasion by Caesar is cancelled due to an uprising in Gaul.
40 AD- an expedition under Caligula fails.
43- Britain is invaded under the orders of Emperor Claudius. An exiled tribal king named Atrebates had appealed to Claudius to restore him by force. The Romans invaded in late April with 4 legions- around 20,000 men.
47- by this point the Romans have have conquerored much of southern Britain. Their conquest extended from the Devon coast along a northeasternly angle to Lincolnshire. A road later called the Fosse Way would run roughly along the same line.
51- Romans capture Cataracus, a leader of the British resistance. He was deported to Rome to be executed, but gave a moving speech in the presence Emperor Claudius and was allowed to live (must have been quite a talker!).
60-a king of the Iceni tribe named Prasutagus willed some of his lands to the Romans upon his death in hopes of keeping peace. Instead, they took all of his land, horribly mistreated his widow Boudicca and his daughters, and created a rebellion within the population due to their outrageous cruelty. Boudicca quickly found herself at the head of an entire population of enraged Britons hungry for Roman blood. The Roman governor of Britain, Suetonius Paulinus, was away fighting up north in Wales, and when he returned the countryside was in an uproar. The cities of Camulodonum, Londinium, and Verulamium were burned to the ground and part of the Ninth legion was destroyed. Paulinus finally faced Boudicca's army somewhere in the Midlands, and defeated her. She poisoned herself after the battle. Around 80,000 men, women, and children on each side are killed during the course of the revolt. Paulinus thought only of revenge after this revolt, and began a campaign of further cruelty of the Britons, yet they refused to break. An extermination of an entire ancient race might have ensued but for a Roman procurator named Julius Classicianus (whose tombstone sits in the British Museum). He had the foresight to realize that Paulinus would soon be governing a desert island instead of a rich province, and persuaded Emperor Nero to send a new governor, who made somewhat of a peace with the tribemen and stopped the Roman massacre of Briton civilians.
78-Arigola arrived on the island and began campaigning to the north. He felt that lasting peace could not be attained until the fierce warlike tribes in the north were subdued.
83- Arigola won a decisive victory at Mons Graupius and resistence crumbled. He also established a fort in what is now Scotland. Failure to follow up on this campaign north left much of the British Isles outside of Roman control.
92-legions are pulled out of northern Scotland and sent to support Emperor Domitian's campaign in Moesia (modern day Serbia and Bulgaria).
97 through 115- Emperor Trajan greatly reduces the number of legions in southern Scotland and most of his forces become set in forts between Carlisle and Newcastle.
122-Hadrian becomes the first reigning Emperor to visit Britain since Claudius. He orders a 73 mile wall to be built which stretched nearly coast to coast in northern Britain. Though there were still some soldiers stationed to the north of the line, Hadrian's Wall was essentially the northern Roman border for years to come. It took about 6 years to complete. It worked as a defensive line, with forts being built into the wall down it's entire length, but also could have been used to control immigration, smuggling, and customs to a degree.
142-Emperor Antonius Pius advances north into Scotland and orders the construction of the Antonine Wall. Similar in function to Hadrian's Wall, lay about 100 miles to the north of it. It also stretched nearly coast to coast and was about 37 miles in length, stretching from Firth of Forth and Clyde.
With a few units once again being posted north of the wall, the Romans had once again established a presence in central Scotland. The Antoine Wall took about 12 years to complete.
161- around this year, Antonius Pius's successor Marcus Aurelius ordered the Antonine Wall to be abandoned, and all Roman forces in Britain and Scotland were pulled back behind Hadrian's Wall.
213- the Britain is split in two. They formed Brittania Superior (southern Britain and Wales), and Brittania Inferior (northern Britain)
312-the provinces continues to fracture, and by this point province has split into two once again.
367-uprisings by many tribes of the Picts, Scots, and even the Saxons from Europe wreaked havoc throughtout Britain
410-Roman occupation of Britain ends when Emperor Honorius recalls all legions to help defend Rome.
References:
"History of Britain & Ireland" by R.G. Grant, Ann Kay, Michael Kerrigan, and Philip Parker
"History of the English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
Saturday, July 14, 2012
Julius Caesar's British Invasion
Julius Caesar conducted an amphibious invasion against Britain in 55 BC, and then again with a larger force the following year in 54 BC. Neither invasion was successful in that they did not establish a permanant Roman presence on the British Isles. However, they did establish political treaties and relationships with some of the local tribes, in addition to drawing the island into the Roman conscience. Nearly 100 years later in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, the Romans returned to stay (til 410, or about 367 years. To put that in context a bit, as of this post the United States has only been around for 236 years).
Julius Caesar was the man who turned Rome from a republic, into more of a military dictatorship. He believed in taking power from the people, and placing it within the hands of one ruler.
Starting in 58 BC, Julius Caesar began conquering Gaul (northern France), and at some point he cast an ambitious eye across the Channel and began scheming an invasion.
The tribes of southern Britain had heard of his advance north, probably from some of the tribes from northern Gaul of whom they maintained good relations. Several of these tribal heads sent envoys to meet with Caesar, promising support in his invasion if they would be allowed to keep their own lands. Caesar also sent a reconnaissance force under a tribune named Volusenus across the Channel to scout potential landing sites for his amphibious force. He also sent a Gallic chieftain named Commius into Britain to rally the locals into supporting the oncoming Romans. Volusenus couldn't find any good landing spots and Commius was arrested as a nuisance to public safety.
On August 26, 55 BC, Caesar set sail for the short voyage across the Channel to Britain with a force of two legions, the Seventh and the Tenth. Far from taking the Britons by surprise, they were instead waiting on the cliffs of Dover overlooking the beach where the Romans were forced to make landing. It was an unsuitable site near Deal in Kent, and the landing force had to disembark in deep water under a barrage of hurled Briton projectiles. The soldiers were apprehensive at first to jump from the ships into an unknown depth of water under while being showered with spears, javelins, and stones, but once the standard bearer of the Tenth plunged in the rest followed. A short fierce fight took place at the waters edge, but soon the Britons took flight and a Roman beach head was established. Then, misfortune dealt Caesar two heavy blows. First, a flotilla of 18 vessels carrying 500 cavalry who had set sail 3 days later than the rest, was within sight of the Roman beach head when a severe storm hit and pushed them far down the coast and out of the potential fight. Then, the high tide of the full moon of which the Romans were unaware caused alot of damage to his ships at anchor. He later wrote "A number of ships were shattered, and the rest, having lost their cables, anchors, and the remainder of their tackle were unusable which naturally threw the whole army into great consternation." The Romans had not brought supplies capable of sustaining them through the winter, so they had to either fix the fleet or attack inland to gather food from the local farms. They did both. While many worked to fix the ships, many more went on foraging attacks for supplies.
The Romans were able to sustain themselves until the fleet was repaired, then they left as fast as they could. Caesar was already planning for next time.
Preparations soon began for a second invasion. This time Caesar brought 5 legions amounting to about 30,000 soldiers, and 2,000 cavalry. Cavalry was extremely important to the Romans because the Britons, unlike other peoples that the Romans had faced, still used chariots in battle.
On July 6, 54 BC, Julius Caesar embarked for Britain once again. This time his force was over 2 and half time the size of his last one, and were transported by over 800 vessels. The Britons seemed to be intimidated by this huge force, and the landing went unopposed. Although the Britons were initially unprepared, they soon mounted a defense force under a man named Cassivellaunus. Yet another storm scattered Caesar's fleet somewhat, and during the 10 days it took to re-organize, the Briton defense grew in numbers and in preparation. Cassivelaunus was a master tactitian considering the circumstances. He used guerilla style tactics to engage the Romans, and avoided open field engagements where Roman discipline and tactics would have been terribly effective. Soon however, the Romans captured a fort near Canterbury, thwarted an ambush against a foraging party, then marched toward the Thames river. At this point Caesar began to use diplomacy, and recruited Mandubracius, a sworn enemy of Cassivelaunus's to march with him as an advisor. Some of the local chieftains were afraid that Cassivelaunus may try to consolidate power and rule the area himself if he was successful against Caesar. For this reason, many of them stopped supporting him in his resistance to the Romans, and his defense force was weakened. Soon, the Romans captured an important stronghold, then beat off a well planned attack against the Roman supply base. At this point political prudence won the day, and Cassivelaunus negotiated a surrender which included hostages and a promise of tribute and submission. Julius Caesar was happy to oblige him. He was already anxious to get back to Gaul to suppress a rumored revolt, and after some substantial success during this invasion, would be able to sail away as a conqueror. It seems that a potential 3rd invasion was cancelled due to more Gaulish uprising in 51 BC, but whatever the case, Julius Caesar sailed south and never returned to the Island.
References:
"History of Britain & Ireland" by R.G Grant, Michael Kerrigan, and Philip Parker
"History of the English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
Julius Caesar was the man who turned Rome from a republic, into more of a military dictatorship. He believed in taking power from the people, and placing it within the hands of one ruler.
Starting in 58 BC, Julius Caesar began conquering Gaul (northern France), and at some point he cast an ambitious eye across the Channel and began scheming an invasion.
The tribes of southern Britain had heard of his advance north, probably from some of the tribes from northern Gaul of whom they maintained good relations. Several of these tribal heads sent envoys to meet with Caesar, promising support in his invasion if they would be allowed to keep their own lands. Caesar also sent a reconnaissance force under a tribune named Volusenus across the Channel to scout potential landing sites for his amphibious force. He also sent a Gallic chieftain named Commius into Britain to rally the locals into supporting the oncoming Romans. Volusenus couldn't find any good landing spots and Commius was arrested as a nuisance to public safety.
On August 26, 55 BC, Caesar set sail for the short voyage across the Channel to Britain with a force of two legions, the Seventh and the Tenth. Far from taking the Britons by surprise, they were instead waiting on the cliffs of Dover overlooking the beach where the Romans were forced to make landing. It was an unsuitable site near Deal in Kent, and the landing force had to disembark in deep water under a barrage of hurled Briton projectiles. The soldiers were apprehensive at first to jump from the ships into an unknown depth of water under while being showered with spears, javelins, and stones, but once the standard bearer of the Tenth plunged in the rest followed. A short fierce fight took place at the waters edge, but soon the Britons took flight and a Roman beach head was established. Then, misfortune dealt Caesar two heavy blows. First, a flotilla of 18 vessels carrying 500 cavalry who had set sail 3 days later than the rest, was within sight of the Roman beach head when a severe storm hit and pushed them far down the coast and out of the potential fight. Then, the high tide of the full moon of which the Romans were unaware caused alot of damage to his ships at anchor. He later wrote "A number of ships were shattered, and the rest, having lost their cables, anchors, and the remainder of their tackle were unusable which naturally threw the whole army into great consternation." The Romans had not brought supplies capable of sustaining them through the winter, so they had to either fix the fleet or attack inland to gather food from the local farms. They did both. While many worked to fix the ships, many more went on foraging attacks for supplies.
The Romans were able to sustain themselves until the fleet was repaired, then they left as fast as they could. Caesar was already planning for next time.
Preparations soon began for a second invasion. This time Caesar brought 5 legions amounting to about 30,000 soldiers, and 2,000 cavalry. Cavalry was extremely important to the Romans because the Britons, unlike other peoples that the Romans had faced, still used chariots in battle.
On July 6, 54 BC, Julius Caesar embarked for Britain once again. This time his force was over 2 and half time the size of his last one, and were transported by over 800 vessels. The Britons seemed to be intimidated by this huge force, and the landing went unopposed. Although the Britons were initially unprepared, they soon mounted a defense force under a man named Cassivellaunus. Yet another storm scattered Caesar's fleet somewhat, and during the 10 days it took to re-organize, the Briton defense grew in numbers and in preparation. Cassivelaunus was a master tactitian considering the circumstances. He used guerilla style tactics to engage the Romans, and avoided open field engagements where Roman discipline and tactics would have been terribly effective. Soon however, the Romans captured a fort near Canterbury, thwarted an ambush against a foraging party, then marched toward the Thames river. At this point Caesar began to use diplomacy, and recruited Mandubracius, a sworn enemy of Cassivelaunus's to march with him as an advisor. Some of the local chieftains were afraid that Cassivelaunus may try to consolidate power and rule the area himself if he was successful against Caesar. For this reason, many of them stopped supporting him in his resistance to the Romans, and his defense force was weakened. Soon, the Romans captured an important stronghold, then beat off a well planned attack against the Roman supply base. At this point political prudence won the day, and Cassivelaunus negotiated a surrender which included hostages and a promise of tribute and submission. Julius Caesar was happy to oblige him. He was already anxious to get back to Gaul to suppress a rumored revolt, and after some substantial success during this invasion, would be able to sail away as a conqueror. It seems that a potential 3rd invasion was cancelled due to more Gaulish uprising in 51 BC, but whatever the case, Julius Caesar sailed south and never returned to the Island.
References:
"History of Britain & Ireland" by R.G Grant, Michael Kerrigan, and Philip Parker
"History of the English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
Thursday, July 12, 2012
The Crusades
The Crusades are very controversial today. Some people say that they saved Europe from an imminent Muslim invasion, while others denounce them as unjustified butchery. Either way, this post will take a quick look at the events that everyone seems to agrees on, while saving the discussion of the more controversial aspects of for another time.
The purpose of the crusades at first to wrest Palestine, and Jerusalem in particular, from the Saracens. In time however, this was extended to seizing Spain from the Moors, the Slavs and Pagans from eastern Europe, and the islands of the Mediterranean.
All in all there were 9 crusades. The first four are considered the most important and the others are rarely even mentioned. For a period of nearly two hundred years 1096-1272 Europe and Asia were engaged in almost constant warfare. Throughout this period there was a continuous movement of crusaders to and from the Moslem possessions in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt.
First Crusade 1096-1099
-main objective was wresting Jerusalem in the "Holy Land" from Muslim rule and setting up a Catholic king. French-led and widely publicized by Stephen the Hermit, among others. Jerusalem was sacked and turned into a Catholic kingdom where pilgrims could journey to (somewhat) safely.
Second Crusade 1144-1155
-prepared to attack Damascus, Syria. Led by Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III and by King Louis VII of France.
Third Crusade 1187-1192
-crusade led by Richard the Lionheart of England, Philip II of France, and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I. Richard I made a truce with Saladin. Battles of Acre and Hattin took place. Saladin was the main opponent of Richard. He was a brilliant strategist and tactician, and reclaimed much of what the Saracens had lost during the first crusade.
Fourth Crusade 1202-1204
-led by Fulk of Neuil French/Flemish advanced on Constantinople and sacked it to steal its wealth.
Children's Crusade 1212
-the Children's Crusade led by a French peasant boy, Stephen of Cloyes. None of them made it to Palestine; all either turned back, died, or were captured and sold as slaves.
Fifth Crusade 1217-1221
-the 5th Crusade led by King Andrew II of Hungary, Duke Leopold VI of Austria, John of Brienne.
Sixth Crusade 1228-1229
-The 6th Crusade led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II.
Seventh Crusade 1248-1254
-The 7th Crusade led by Louis IX of France.
Eighth Crusade 1270
-led by Louis IX of France
Ninth Crusade 1271-1272
-led by Prince Edward (later Edward I of England)
References:
"The Templars" by Barbara Frale
"History of English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
"A Brief History of British Kings and Queens" by Mike Ashley
& this site on:
the Crusades
The Crusades were a series of wars between the Catholic forces from Europe, and the Saracens (or Moslems) dwelling in the middle east. Jerusalem was considered a sacred city since Christ had been crucified, buried, and resurrected just outside of it. Many Catholics would make the trip (or pilgrimage) to various sites in Palestine to pay their respects and even do penance (the afflicting of oneself in hopes of attracting God's notice). In 1065 Jerusalem was taken by the Turks and about 3000 Catholics were massacred. This started a chain of events which contributed to the cause of the crusades.
The purpose of the crusades at first to wrest Palestine, and Jerusalem in particular, from the Saracens. In time however, this was extended to seizing Spain from the Moors, the Slavs and Pagans from eastern Europe, and the islands of the Mediterranean.
All in all there were 9 crusades. The first four are considered the most important and the others are rarely even mentioned. For a period of nearly two hundred years 1096-1272 Europe and Asia were engaged in almost constant warfare. Throughout this period there was a continuous movement of crusaders to and from the Moslem possessions in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt.
The Crusades also gave rise to well known religious Orders of Knights like the Templars, Hospitallars, and Teutonic Knights which worked to defend pilgrims to Palestine from raiders and Saracens.
The effects of the Crusades on Europe of the Middle Ages were an important factor in the history of the progress of civilization. The effects of the Crusades influenced the wealth and power of the Catholic Church, Political matters, commerce, feudalism, intellectual development, social effects, material effects and the effects of the crusades also prompted the famous Voyages of discovery. They also introduced new but lasting products into European culture such as silk, floor rugs, and coffee.
The Crusaders were made up of upper and lower classes. Some were in search of wealth, glory, or adventure, while others hoped to be acquired of crimes they may have committed in their home country upon their return.
Here is a quick timeline:
First Crusade 1096-1099
-main objective was wresting Jerusalem in the "Holy Land" from Muslim rule and setting up a Catholic king. French-led and widely publicized by Stephen the Hermit, among others. Jerusalem was sacked and turned into a Catholic kingdom where pilgrims could journey to (somewhat) safely.
Second Crusade 1144-1155
-prepared to attack Damascus, Syria. Led by Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III and by King Louis VII of France.
Third Crusade 1187-1192
-crusade led by Richard the Lionheart of England, Philip II of France, and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I. Richard I made a truce with Saladin. Battles of Acre and Hattin took place. Saladin was the main opponent of Richard. He was a brilliant strategist and tactician, and reclaimed much of what the Saracens had lost during the first crusade.
Fourth Crusade 1202-1204
-led by Fulk of Neuil French/Flemish advanced on Constantinople and sacked it to steal its wealth.
Children's Crusade 1212
-the Children's Crusade led by a French peasant boy, Stephen of Cloyes. None of them made it to Palestine; all either turned back, died, or were captured and sold as slaves.
Fifth Crusade 1217-1221
-the 5th Crusade led by King Andrew II of Hungary, Duke Leopold VI of Austria, John of Brienne.
Sixth Crusade 1228-1229
-The 6th Crusade led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II.
Seventh Crusade 1248-1254
-The 7th Crusade led by Louis IX of France.
Eighth Crusade 1270
-led by Louis IX of France
Ninth Crusade 1271-1272
-led by Prince Edward (later Edward I of England)
References:
"The Templars" by Barbara Frale
"History of English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
"A Brief History of British Kings and Queens" by Mike Ashley
& this site on:
the Crusades
Battle of Hastings
October 14, 1066...Senlac Hill near Hastings, England...Saxon's led by the current king of England Harold II with about 6,300 soldiers met the Norman force of about 6,000 commanded by William Duke of Normandy. Both armies were riding a wave of high morale: the Saxons due to their recent victory over the Vikings and other allied invaders at Stamford Bridge, and because they were motivated to defend their homeland from foreign invasion. The Norman's morale was high because of the prospect for loot and other wealth.
Harold's Saxon's were positioned at the crest of Senlac Hill in a phalanx, or shield wall, and were reinforced by a line of sharpened stakes to their front. Their experienced heavy infantry was positioned at the center. William also placed his heaviest and most experienced infantry in the front, and was forced to attack up the hill of about 150 yards with a 50 ft gain in elevation. At about 9am, the Normans showered the Saxons with an archery barrage, then charged the Saxon line with their infantry. The archery barrage had little effect due to the fact that they were shooting uphill, and because of the tight shield wall provided good protection. However, they defended their position from the onrushing Normans with javelins, spears, and axes, and stymied the charge. The Normans began to fall back. Some of the Saxons, eager for a route, broke from the shield wall to give chase (something you just didn't do... this broke the integrity of the wall and made it far more vulnerable). William waited for the these charging infantry to break far enough away from the shield wall so that they could not be supported by their formation...then ordered his cavalry to charge them. They were annihilated. He then began to re-group his men at the bottom of the hill for another attack. This time it was more deliberate, and would be initiated by cavalry instead of foot soldiers, and would be supported with archers.
The trip uphill was much slower and harder due to the fact that it was now churned to mud and was littered with weapons and the bodies of dead and dying men. Wave after wave charged the shield wall for the next two hours with neither side gaining a decided advantage. Around 1 pm, William, who was now on foot after being unhorsed heard shouting above the din of battle that "William is dead!" Immediately he noticed his many of his soldiers running back down the hill in disarray. William snatched a horse from Eustace of Boulogne a field commander, peeled his helmet off, and galloped down the hill bareheaded and shouting to his men that he was alive, and to rally. They did. After regrouping once again at the bottom of the hill, William decided to attack as one mass of infantry. Many of his cavalrymen's horses were dead at this point, and those that had been unhorsed would fight as foot solders during the final assault. At around 3 pm, the third attack began. It started slowly with the archers being ordered to "shoot high", and with the infantry crowding behind them, inching up the hill. The cavalry waited in the rear. This archery barrage seemed to be much more effective than the first, and when the Norman infantry and dismounted cavalry hit the Saxon shield wall this time... it began to give way. Soon a hole opened in the line and the Norman cavalry surged in. The fighting, which had been savage all day, grew even more fierce as the armies mingled into a maelstrom of death. A large group crowded around Harold, defending him, but soon he was killed. Some think he was shot by an archer, while others say he was killed in hand to hand fighting at the very end of the battle. Either way, no one soldier seems to take credit for killing him, but all agreed he fell that afternoon. Darkness began to fall and surviving groups of Saxons began to melt away into the countryside. Each side lost over 2,000 men during the battle, but William emerged victorious and was soon crowned king of England.
References:
"History of English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
"Great Battles: Decisive Conflicts that have Shaped History" Edited by Christer Jorgenson
Harold's Saxon's were positioned at the crest of Senlac Hill in a phalanx, or shield wall, and were reinforced by a line of sharpened stakes to their front. Their experienced heavy infantry was positioned at the center. William also placed his heaviest and most experienced infantry in the front, and was forced to attack up the hill of about 150 yards with a 50 ft gain in elevation. At about 9am, the Normans showered the Saxons with an archery barrage, then charged the Saxon line with their infantry. The archery barrage had little effect due to the fact that they were shooting uphill, and because of the tight shield wall provided good protection. However, they defended their position from the onrushing Normans with javelins, spears, and axes, and stymied the charge. The Normans began to fall back. Some of the Saxons, eager for a route, broke from the shield wall to give chase (something you just didn't do... this broke the integrity of the wall and made it far more vulnerable). William waited for the these charging infantry to break far enough away from the shield wall so that they could not be supported by their formation...then ordered his cavalry to charge them. They were annihilated. He then began to re-group his men at the bottom of the hill for another attack. This time it was more deliberate, and would be initiated by cavalry instead of foot soldiers, and would be supported with archers.
The trip uphill was much slower and harder due to the fact that it was now churned to mud and was littered with weapons and the bodies of dead and dying men. Wave after wave charged the shield wall for the next two hours with neither side gaining a decided advantage. Around 1 pm, William, who was now on foot after being unhorsed heard shouting above the din of battle that "William is dead!" Immediately he noticed his many of his soldiers running back down the hill in disarray. William snatched a horse from Eustace of Boulogne a field commander, peeled his helmet off, and galloped down the hill bareheaded and shouting to his men that he was alive, and to rally. They did. After regrouping once again at the bottom of the hill, William decided to attack as one mass of infantry. Many of his cavalrymen's horses were dead at this point, and those that had been unhorsed would fight as foot solders during the final assault. At around 3 pm, the third attack began. It started slowly with the archers being ordered to "shoot high", and with the infantry crowding behind them, inching up the hill. The cavalry waited in the rear. This archery barrage seemed to be much more effective than the first, and when the Norman infantry and dismounted cavalry hit the Saxon shield wall this time... it began to give way. Soon a hole opened in the line and the Norman cavalry surged in. The fighting, which had been savage all day, grew even more fierce as the armies mingled into a maelstrom of death. A large group crowded around Harold, defending him, but soon he was killed. Some think he was shot by an archer, while others say he was killed in hand to hand fighting at the very end of the battle. Either way, no one soldier seems to take credit for killing him, but all agreed he fell that afternoon. Darkness began to fall and surviving groups of Saxons began to melt away into the countryside. Each side lost over 2,000 men during the battle, but William emerged victorious and was soon crowned king of England.
References:
"History of English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
"Great Battles: Decisive Conflicts that have Shaped History" Edited by Christer Jorgenson
1066: England
In January of 1066, Edward the Confessor, King of England died. Since he was childless, their were 4 men immediately began to position themselves to be the next king.
-Harold II, the Earl of Wessex
-William, Duke of Normandy. The year before, Harold II had supposedly promised to support him in his claim to the throne upon Edward's death.
-Harald Hardraada, a Viking from Norway allied with Tostig Godwin, Harold II's brother.
-Edgar the Athleling, a young boy old who was probably the closest related to Edward. Since he was young and wielded no real power, he was ignored by the other parties.
Harold was closest proximity to Edward, and was immediately crowned king. William received the news in Normandy (northern France) and began preparing an invasion force to claim the crown by force from Harold, whom he believed had broken his word.
Harold believed that the oath that he'd sworn to support William as the next king was invalid, since he felt that he'd been coerced and so was not bound to it.
Harald Haardrada the Viking sailed from Norway with a force of over 200 warships, landed in Orkney in the northern part of England to gather more men and supplies, then sailed again to the mouth of the Tyne river to meet up with Tostig, Harold's estranged brother. Together, they marched into Northumbria, burning and pillaging as they went. On September 20 they met and defeated an English force led by two earls (Morcar and Edwin). Then, the invaders withdrew to Stamford Bridge to await surrender conditions for the nearby town of York. On September 25, after a forced march north, Harold II's army met and surprised the forces of Harald Hadraada and Tostig at Stamdford Bridge. Both Harald and Tostig were slain in the battle, and naturally Harald Hadraada's threat to Harold II's reign was extinguished. Harold had no time to celebrate however.
Unbeknowst to Harold II, William had crossed the English Channel and landed with a large Norman force at Pevensy, England on the southern coast. He marched north into Wessex, Harold's private land, and began to terrorize the countryside by burning and pillaging (folks did a lot of burning and pillaging in those days). He probably did this to provoke Harold into rushing down and meeting him on a ground of his own choosing. Whatever the reason, this is exactly what Harold did.
Without waiting to be reinforced by archers or cavalry, he burst onto the scene at Senlac Hill and fought what would become the Battle Hastings.
On October 14, 1066 William, Duke of Normandy defeated the Saxon army under Harold II, and killed him in the process. The Duke of Normandy became known known as William the Conqueror.
Although descended from the Vikings, the Normans had learned much from the French about power, grandeur, and upper class existence, and it influenced England for centuries. William was a harsh yet effective leader. 1066 marks a turning point from Saxon rule in England and much about English culture can be attributed to this year.
Sources:
"A Brief History of: British Kings and Queens" by Mike Ashley
"History of English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
-Harold II, the Earl of Wessex
-William, Duke of Normandy. The year before, Harold II had supposedly promised to support him in his claim to the throne upon Edward's death.
-Harald Hardraada, a Viking from Norway allied with Tostig Godwin, Harold II's brother.
-Edgar the Athleling, a young boy old who was probably the closest related to Edward. Since he was young and wielded no real power, he was ignored by the other parties.
Harold was closest proximity to Edward, and was immediately crowned king. William received the news in Normandy (northern France) and began preparing an invasion force to claim the crown by force from Harold, whom he believed had broken his word.
Harold believed that the oath that he'd sworn to support William as the next king was invalid, since he felt that he'd been coerced and so was not bound to it.
Harald Haardrada the Viking sailed from Norway with a force of over 200 warships, landed in Orkney in the northern part of England to gather more men and supplies, then sailed again to the mouth of the Tyne river to meet up with Tostig, Harold's estranged brother. Together, they marched into Northumbria, burning and pillaging as they went. On September 20 they met and defeated an English force led by two earls (Morcar and Edwin). Then, the invaders withdrew to Stamford Bridge to await surrender conditions for the nearby town of York. On September 25, after a forced march north, Harold II's army met and surprised the forces of Harald Hadraada and Tostig at Stamdford Bridge. Both Harald and Tostig were slain in the battle, and naturally Harald Hadraada's threat to Harold II's reign was extinguished. Harold had no time to celebrate however.
Unbeknowst to Harold II, William had crossed the English Channel and landed with a large Norman force at Pevensy, England on the southern coast. He marched north into Wessex, Harold's private land, and began to terrorize the countryside by burning and pillaging (folks did a lot of burning and pillaging in those days). He probably did this to provoke Harold into rushing down and meeting him on a ground of his own choosing. Whatever the reason, this is exactly what Harold did.
Without waiting to be reinforced by archers or cavalry, he burst onto the scene at Senlac Hill and fought what would become the Battle Hastings.
On October 14, 1066 William, Duke of Normandy defeated the Saxon army under Harold II, and killed him in the process. The Duke of Normandy became known known as William the Conqueror.
Although descended from the Vikings, the Normans had learned much from the French about power, grandeur, and upper class existence, and it influenced England for centuries. William was a harsh yet effective leader. 1066 marks a turning point from Saxon rule in England and much about English culture can be attributed to this year.
Sources:
"A Brief History of: British Kings and Queens" by Mike Ashley
"History of English Speaking Peoples" by Winston Churchill
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